When a signature is disputed, a will appears suspicious, entries in a medical record seem to have been changed, or handwriting on a document is denied, the professional consulted is generally a forensic document examiner.

A forensic document examiner—also called a questioned document examiner—is trained to examine documents whose authenticity, authorship, origin, preparation, or alteration has been called into question. The examiner applies specialized knowledge, training, experience, and established examination methods to evaluate the physical and written evidence contained in a document.

Forensic document examiners are also frequently referred to as handwriting experts. The terms are often used interchangeably because handwriting and signature comparison are among the most recognized areas of questioned document examination. However, handwriting examination is only one part of the broader work performed by a forensic document examiner.

Professional standards describe forensic document examiners by several titles, including questioned document examiner, document examiner, document analyst, and handwriting expert. These standards also recognize handwriting identification as an established area within forensic document examination.

Is a Forensic Document Examiner the Same as a Handwriting Expert?

In many legal cases, the answer is effectively yes—but there is an important distinction.

A handwriting expert primarily examines handwriting, hand printing, numerals, initials, and signatures to determine whether two or more writings may have been produced by the same person.

A forensic document examiner may perform those same handwriting and signature examinations while also addressing additional questions involving the document itself.

For example, a forensic document examiner may be asked to determine:

• Whether a questioned signature is genuine or simulated
• Whether handwriting was produced by a particular person
• Whether an entry was added to a document at a later time
• Whether information has been erased, obliterated, overwritten, or altered
• Whether pages have been substituted or assembled from different sources
• Whether indented writing is present on underlying pages
• Whether a document was produced by a particular printer, copier, typewriter, or other device
• Whether two documents have a meaningful physical or production-related relationship
• Whether a document contains evidence of tracing, copying, manipulation, or another method of simulation

Therefore, handwriting expert is an accurate and commonly understood description of an examiner who specializes in handwriting identification. However, forensic document examiner more fully describes the broader discipline.

The recognized scope of forensic document examination includes handwriting and typewriting identification, examinations involving printers and copying devices, inks and papers, document alterations, sequence-of-preparation issues, obscured material, indentations, and other physical evidence contained in documents.

What Is a Questioned Document?

A questioned document is not necessarily fraudulent or forged. It is simply a document—or a portion of a document—about which a question has been raised.

The questioned feature might be:

• A signature
• A handwritten entry
• A date
• An initial
• A numerical entry
• A page or paragraph
• A printed provision
• An alteration
• An erasure
• An insertion
• The document’s method of production

Documents may become questioned during civil litigation, criminal investigations, probate disputes, family law matters, business disagreements, insurance claims, employment cases, real estate transactions, and other matters in which the authenticity or integrity of a written record is important.

A document does not have to be an original contract or formal legal instrument to qualify as a questioned document. Checks, notes, envelopes, journals, medical records, financial records, applications, receipts, anonymous communications, and electronic printouts may all contain evidence requiring forensic examination.

What Does a Forensic Handwriting Examination Involve?

A forensic handwriting examination generally involves the comparison of questioned writing with known writing.

The questioned writing is the signature, handwriting, hand printing, numeral, or other written material whose authorship is disputed or unknown.

Known writing generally consists of authentic writing samples from the person believed to be the possible writer. These samples may include naturally written documents produced during the ordinary course of business or personal activity, as well as requested writing prepared specifically for comparison.

The examiner first determines whether the available material is suitable for examination. Suitability may depend on factors such as:

• The quantity and quality of the writing
• Whether the questioned and known writings are comparable
• Whether sufficient corresponding letters or letter combinations are present
• The dates of the documents
• The writing conditions
• Whether the material is original or reproduced
• Whether the writing appears natural, disguised, traced, simulated, or otherwise distorted

The examination is not based on whether two signatures merely “look alike.” A person’s genuine signatures are not expected to be exact duplicates. Natural handwriting contains variation, and one of the examiner’s responsibilities is to determine the writer’s normal range of variation.

Professional handwriting examination procedures call for an evaluation of the similarities, differences, variations, and limitations found in the questioned and known writings. Relevant features may include line quality, letter construction, proportions, spacing, slant, size, connecting strokes, beginning and ending strokes, pen lifts, writing rhythm, speed, pressure patterns, simplification, fluency, tremor, retouching, and other recurring habits.

No single characteristic ordinarily determines authorship. The examiner evaluates the significance of the features individually and in combination.

Why Two Genuine Signatures Do Not Have to Be Identical

One of the most common misunderstandings about signature comparison is the belief that genuine signatures should match perfectly.

They should not.

Every person exhibits a degree of natural variation. A signature may change slightly depending on writing speed, available space, the writing instrument, the writing surface, the writer’s physical position, health, age, fatigue, medication, haste, or the importance of the document being signed.

At the same time, genuine signatures generally contain recurring habits and patterns. These habits may appear in the movement, structure, spacing, proportions, stroke direction, rhythm, and execution of the writing.

A forensic handwriting expert studies both the recurring characteristics and the writer’s range of variation. The question is not whether two signatures are visually identical. The question is whether the observed similarities and differences are consistent with the habits and natural variation of one writer or indicate different writers or a simulation process.

Professional standards specifically recognize that variation is an integral part of natural writing and that repeated writing by the same person will not be identical in every detail.

What Types of Documents Can Be Examined?

Forensic document examiners work with a wide variety of disputed and questioned documents, including:

• Wills and trusts
• Deeds and other real estate documents
• Contracts and business agreements
• Checks and financial instruments
• Loan and credit applications
• Medical and dental records
• Employment documents
• Insurance records
• Leases
• Prenuptial and postnuptial agreements
• Powers of attorney
• Beneficiary designations
• Immigration documents
• Anonymous letters and notes
• Threatening communications
• Journals and personal records
• Receipts, invoices, and logs
• Printed and photocopied documents

The examiner’s role depends upon the questions presented and the available evidence. In one case, the central issue may be whether a person signed a document. In another, the issue may be whether a date was changed, a page was replaced, an entry was added, or a signature was transferred or reproduced.

Can a Forensic Document Examiner Determine Whether a Signature Is Forged?

A forensic document examiner may be able to determine whether a questioned signature was or was not written by the person whose name appears in the signature. The examiner may also identify evidence suggesting that a signature was slowly drawn, traced, simulated, copied, digitally reproduced, or produced through another process.

However, the word forgery has both forensic and legal implications.

A document examiner evaluates the physical and handwriting evidence. The examiner may offer an opinion concerning authorship, authenticity, simulation, alteration, or method of production. Questions involving a person’s intent to deceive, legal liability, or whether conduct satisfies the statutory elements of forgery are ultimately legal questions.

This distinction can be particularly important in expert reports and testimony. A careful examiner remains within the limits of the document evidence and does not attempt to determine a party’s legal guilt or state of mind.

Is Handwriting Examination the Same as Graphology?

No.

Forensic handwriting examination is not graphology, personality analysis, or an attempt to determine a writer’s character from handwriting.

A forensic handwriting expert compares observable writing characteristics to address questions of authorship and authenticity. The work may involve signatures, cursive writing, hand printing, numerals, initials, symbols, or other written marks.

Graphology attempts to associate handwriting features with personality traits, temperament, or behavior. That is not the purpose of forensic document examination.

The professional scope standard expressly distinguishes forensic document examination from attempts to construct a personality profile or judge a writer’s personality or character through handwriting.

This distinction is especially useful because the phrase handwriting analysis is commonly used in more than one way. In a forensic and legal context, handwriting analysis generally refers to the examination and comparison of writing for identification or elimination—not personality interpretation.

Are Original Documents Required?

Original documents are generally preferred because they may contain evidence that is not visible in a scan or photocopy.

However, a meaningful examination may still be possible when only a high-quality copy or scan is available. The examiner must first determine whether the reproduction contains sufficient detail for the questions presented.

Standards for handwriting examination recognize that nonoriginal documents may be examined when the reproduced writing is sufficiently clear, while also acknowledging that some features may be limited or unavailable without the original.

The absence of an original does not automatically make a case unsuitable for examination. It does mean that the examiner should identify any limitations and avoid offering an opinion beyond what the available material can support.

What Does a Forensic Document Examiner Provide to an Attorney or Client?

Depending upon the needs of the matter, a forensic document examiner may provide:

• An initial consultation
• Evaluation of the available documents
• Guidance concerning appropriate comparison samples
• Laboratory examination
• Verbal findings
• A written report or declaration
• Demonstrative exhibits
• Deposition testimony
• Trial, hearing, or arbitration testimony
• Consultation regarding the opposing expert’s work
• Assistance preparing for direct or cross-examination

For attorneys, early consultation may help identify what documents should be requested in discovery, whether originals should be preserved or inspected, what known handwriting samples may be needed, and whether the available materials are sufficient for a reliable comparison.

Early involvement can also prevent important evidence from being altered, marked, repeatedly handled, subjected to destructive testing, or returned before a forensic examination is considered.

When Should a Forensic Document Examiner Be Contacted?

A forensic document examiner should be consulted when a meaningful question has been raised about the authorship, authenticity, alteration, preparation, or physical integrity of a document.

Common reasons for contacting an examiner include:

• A person denies signing a document
• Family members dispute a signature on a will or trust
• A deed or beneficiary designation appears suspicious
• Entries in a medical or financial record may have been added or changed
• A business agreement contains disputed handwriting or initials
• Anonymous writing must be compared with suspected writers
• A document appears to contain substituted pages or inconsistent printing
• An opposing expert has issued a report requiring review
• An attorney needs assistance identifying the documents necessary for comparison

Consulting an examiner early does not require a commitment to litigation or testimony. It can simply help the attorney or client understand whether the issue is appropriate for forensic examination, what materials will be needed, and what limitations may exist.

The Role of a Forensic Document Examiner

A forensic document examiner helps attorneys, courts, businesses, investigators, and private individuals understand evidence that may not be apparent through ordinary observation.

Although the examiner may be commonly called a handwriting expert, the work extends beyond handwriting and signature comparison. It may involve questioned signatures, altered documents, handwriting identification, printing processes, indentations, erasures, additions, substituted pages, and other evidence affecting the authenticity or integrity of a document.

The examiner’s responsibility is not to advocate for either side. It is to examine the available evidence objectively, apply appropriate methods, identify meaningful findings and limitations, and communicate those findings in a manner that can be understood by the client, attorney, court, or other decision-maker.

Do You Have a Questioned Signature or Disputed Document?

Beth Chrisman, CFDE, CQDE, is a certified and court-qualified forensic document examiner and handwriting expert who provides questioned document examinations, handwriting and signature comparisons, consultations, written reports, declarations, and expert testimony.

Cases are accepted from attorneys, businesses, and private clients throughout the United States and internationally. An initial consultation can help determine whether the documents are suitable for examination, what comparison material may be needed, and the appropriate next steps for the matter.

Contact Beth Chrisman to discuss a questioned signature, suspected document alteration, handwriting concern, or other disputed-document issue.